Hindu Mythology
(This is an excerpt from a University Of Metaphysical Sciences course at www.umsonline.org,
please feel free to visit the school website)
Written by Margaret Branch and Sean Michael Smith
The immense Indian subcontinent encompasses an astonishing diversity of geographical regions. In the north lie the rugged Himalayan Mountains. Further south lay the vast agricultural plains of the river Ganges. There are high plateaus and low-lying coastal regions, vast rainforests and deserts. The climate is extreme, with scorching heat followed by drenching monsoons. This tremendously varied and unpredictable land has given rise to a rich mythology, many of whose deities have spread elsewhere, for example to Tibet and Sri Lanka. A significant feature of Indian belief is the desire to transcend the chaos and unpredictability of the world in order to find the truth, nirvana (spiritual ecstasy) or enlightenment. The mythology of Hinduism is quite varied and complex due to its arising from many subcultures over a long period of time in the large country of India. The myths of literally millions of deities are interwoven, and in many cases understood best by comparison to each other, having evolved from localized religious cults in “parallel” movements. From the earliest times, evidence suggests that people believed that they might achieve this goal through meditation. For example, modern excavations have uncovered evidence that the people of the Indus valley civilization, which flourished around the middle of the third millennium B.C. in the region of modern Pakistan worshipped a deity associated with meditation. In 2000 B.C., the remarkable Indus Valley civilization collapsed under the constant incursions of the Aryan invaders, a group of Bronze Age tribes. The Aryans, or “Noble People,” believed in many gods, spirits, and demons. Among their most important deities were Indra, a weather and warrior god; Varuna, a maintainer of order and morality; Agni, a fire god; Surya, the sin god; and Yama, Lord of Death. Many of the gods of the Aryan invaders are venerated in India to this day. Historically, Aryan people from the north came into the northwestern part of India at approximately 1500 B.C., absorbing the existing cultures in the Indus valley, and later spreading to the Ganges River area. Their gods were from traditions scattered throughout Asia. They came to reflect the social structure of the warrior-ruling nature as Indo-Aryans settled, and absorbed existing deities from agrarian tribes whose gods were related to nature and fertility cycles.
Nonetheless, some of the beliefs attributed to the people of the Indus Valley civilization were to resurface. For example, the great Hindu god Shiva is believed to have taken on most of the aspects of the Indus Valley's fertility god. Indeed, this ancient figure is sometimes called “Proto-Shiva.” The god also demonstrates something of the continuity of Indian beliefs, the willingness of the people to adopt and assimilate deities into their own world view. In the Rig Veda, a collection of sacred hymns composed between the 14th and 10th centuries B.C., Shiva is only a minor deity known as Rudra. However, he later rose to become one of the three major gods of Hinduism, the main belief system that developed from India's earlier religious traditions.
Followers of Buddhism and Jainism, two religions which arose in India in the sixth century B.C., were also dedicated to the use of meditative techniques as a means of release from the cycle of death and rebirth. For Jains, the path to liberation demanded that stringent austerities, including self-mortifications, be practiced, while Buddhists emphasized the inward struggle. Although Buddhism and Jainism both deny the existence of a creator god, they both have a rich mythology. Jainism focuses on the Tirthankaras, the great teachers who show the way to achieve liberation. Buddhism, on the other hand, gave rise to the Mahayana cult of bodhisattvas and Buddhas who helped people along the path to enlightenment. Veneration of numerous Buddhas smoothed the way for people who were accustomed to deity worship. Morever, the adoption of many deities from Hinduism, as well as other religions, helped Buddhism spread and flourish. At the same time, such a policy produced a vast and often bewildering pantheon.
In the third century B.C., Mahinda, a close relative to the great Indian Emperor Ashoka, introduced Buddhism to Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka was converted and Buddhism became the country’s dominant religion up until today. In the fifth through seventh centuries A.D. missionaries and great adepts traveled to Nepal and Tibet. Although the new beliefs faced opposition from followers of the indigenous Bon religion, by the 12th century A.D. tantric Buddhism was firmly established. The Bon religion was characterized by a belief in two creator deities, the principles of good and evil, as well as a host of lesser gods and goddesses, and shared many similarities with Mongolian shamanism.
The Indian cosmology differs whether one is Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain. The common feature in all these cosmologies is the concept of the world mountain, Meru, at the center of the universe. It is composed of the elements of existence and provides homes for the gods, and demi-gods in the center of the world. From there one can attain many deity existences and access to Pure Lands, which are hidden to normal perception.
This writing will deal with a broad overview of major religious developmental trends in India, including some major deities and influences. The mythology itself is difficult to present, as several gods play many roles, assuming many different names, forms and incarnations, sometimes even morphing into each other, depending on the myth, geographical location, and historical period. Paradoxically, Hinduism is also based on the concept of the One Absolute creative principle, or Brahman, which encompasses all. It is characterized by the sacred syllable, Om, the eternal essence permeating the universal first cause.
The Vedas
Over a period of centuries from about 1200 B.C. to 500 B.C., ancient sacred texts of four collections of hymns called the Vedas (veda meaning “knowledge”) came into being. The Vedas were divinely revealed through the medium of sacred sound to the mythical race of Indian Rishis. These scriptures, as they evolved into written “hymns,” were the basis for all the religious mythology leading forward to the Classical Age of Hinduism, which peaked in the first millennium AD. It is in the Vedic writings that the doctrine of rebirth, reincarnation, or “transmigration of souls,” first appears.
In the Vedas, the doctrine of “karma” as a universal principle of cause and effect—life actions with consequences—determines the cycles of life, death and rebirth. If one was ethically motivated, he would be promised a “better” rebirth, but human desires were really the cause for attachment to this cycle. “The round of birth and death—with some rebirths better because of good deeds and some worse because of bad deeds—is called “samsara.” (Religions Of The World, 1969:383)
During the Vedic epoch, a class system of “varnas” developed, which was a system of social divisions into which an individual was born and died. The highest, most privileged class was the one composed of Brahmans (or Brahmins), who studied and taught Vedic learning. Within the Brahmin class were the powerful, learned and honored priests who could alone propitiate the gods in sacrificial rituals involving plants and animals in the sacred fire. As well, they were venerated by the other classes with presents.
Over time, the rise of Brahmanism from the Vedic Age led to the development of spiritual centers that were essentially great temple-cities in regional kingdoms, supporting the sovereignty of the current dynasty. These continued to be influential throughout the evolution of Hinduism, which began its flowering into the “Golden Age” in the centuries following the birth of Christ. As a continuation of the Vedic tradition, classical Hinduism, as it came to be known, held sacred the four Vedas and the pantheon of gods. However, a new emphasis was on inner wisdom and devotional worship of the deity of choice with flowers and fruit, both in the temple and in the home.
The transition came about through one of the later additions to the Vedic compositions, emerging between 800 B.C. and 500 B.C., called the Upanishads. The content of the writing (which was fully developed Sanskrit by then) contained the development of a new scholasticism through the consideration of abstract spiritual concepts. This marked a shift in the religion toward the idea that the gods were only symbolic, and the process of inner contemplation was most necessary for spiritual understanding.
In regards to this evolution, it could be said that a seeker was able, through worship of the gods, to reach awareness of the Ultimate Reality, called Brahman. In the un-manifested state, the scriptures say “Brahman is truth, the world is illusion….The appearance of universes and their disappearance are therefore….cyclic events.” (Larousse Encyclopedia Of Mythology, 1968:206). For the search for this awareness to be comprehensible to humans, the concept of Atman (spark of God within) was revealed as one-Self; it “designates what is manifested in the fact of consciousness as being the thinking principle.” This ultimate non-dualism is known as Advaita, which later became the most famous school of Indian philosophy in the 8th century—the one of Advaita Vedanta.
As the Vedic Age came to a close with these vaster perspectives in scriptural recordings, three aspects of the impersonal Brahman could now be conceptualized as “God Made Manifest” through the “Trimurti” or the Three-fold God. Represented as a group of three faces on one head, these are Brahma, the Creator of Life; Vishnu, the Preserver of Life; and Shiva, the Destroyer of Life. All other gods could be seen to essentially revolve around these vast principles in human incarnation. Vedic sacrificial ritual, in general orthodoxy, was therefore replaced with “loving devotion to Shaivite [followers of Shiva] or Vaishnavite [followers of Vishnu] deities (Religions Of The World, 1969:391).” However, at the popular levels in villages, there continued to exist in some areas sacrificial cults worshipping the destructive aspects of Shiva and Kali from many centuries before.
The Hindu Gods & Goddesses
Indra: One of the major deities of the conquering Indo-Aryans included Indra, god of warriors and nature, the Lord of Heaven to which cows were sacrificed. His cosmic twin, a hero of strength and actually a cult in his own right, was the god Agni, god of the sacred fire in which sacrifices were made. Aditi was a female deity that symbolized boundlessness, and was associated with sky and air. Soma was characterized by hallucinogenic plants, prepared as a nectar of and for the gods, and was seen as the “source of inspiration and principle of life.” (New Larousse Encyclopedia Of Mythology, 1968:326). Varuna, associated with the sky and the still depths of the ocean, was the keeper of law and order. Yama was the gloomy god of death and presided over hell, while Kali and Durga were fearsome “she-monsters” that were in place from the existing Dravidian culture, and were associated with the cycles of Nature.
It is interesting to see how the destructive aspect of Kali, who wears a necklace of skulls, earrings of corpses, and a skirt of human arms, appears in later myths as a guise that is taken by another goddess to conquer demons. Her fierceness was powerful and venerated by the popular masses in legends of battles between the Devas (“good” gods) and Asuras (demons). These gods were to be feared, admired, and propitiated with sacrifice (hence the traditional sacredness of cows in India).
Krishna :The popular mythology that defined the evolution of Vedism (or Brahmanism) into classical Hinduism was embodied in the form of poetic narratives called Epic writings. Two notable collections that achieved their final forms between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. were called the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The importance of these two scriptures lies in the popularization of the hero-gods Krishna and Rama, both incarnations of Vishnu. Their legends inspire and teach the essence of Hindu philosophy. As such, it is important to describe their function in Hinduism today.
Krishna was an avatar incarnation of the god Vishnu. He came to earth when divine intervention was needed. Krishna actually appears in a smaller poem that was incorporated into the great war epic, Mahabharata. This poem is the well-known Bhagavad–Gita, probably written between 100 B.C. and 100 A.D. The Bhagavad-Gita is “often called the New Testament of Hinduism…there is no greater work in the religion of Hinduism today; the Upanishads are the only other Hindu works that compare with it in importance for modern leaders of religion and philosophy.” (Religions Of The World, 1969:404) Its contents consist of dialogues between Krishna and his cousin Arjuna at the eve of a great battle between warring families.
The depiction of Krishna in the Bhagavad-Gita is one of an accomplished teacher of philosophy, and a great yogi. His advice to Arjuna reveals great knowledge about the nature of man and God, and the four margas that lead to “moksha.” It is here that “egoless action—renunciation of the fruits of work—makes moksha possible… the earliest reference in Sanskrit literature to karma-marga [or yoga].” (Religions Of The World, 1969:406). As well, the relationship of this concept to the “dharma,” which is defined as the overarching harmony and order of the universe, is defined by “right action” and social duty to one’s class.
Thus Krishna deigns that it is Arjuna’s dharma to go into battle. It is his duty as a member of the social order whose task it is to defend righteous causes with military force if necessary, knowing that only bodies can be killed but never the immortal soul. In the Bhagavad-Gita, Krishna also expounds on the need for deep meditation in order to experience union with the non-material aspect of the universe. This is contrasted to the path of knowledge, jnana-marga, which deals with the world of matter (which is in turn subdivided into three aspects: sattva, characterized by an etheric aspect of existence; rajas by dynamic passion, and tamas by inertia or heaviness).
By far, the favorite path of salvation illustrated in the Bhagavad-Gita is the personal one of bhakti-marga, in which Krishna asks Arjuna for full, unconditional devotion. Through this single-minded homage it is promised that karma can be nullified by total surrender to the Lord, who, by the grace that is traditionally ascribed to Vishnu, offers absolution from the need for rebirth.
The legendary hero Krishna is many-faceted. In some myths, quite possibly stemming from old legends of a similar god, he appears in the guise of a warrior, and also a simple cow-herd of mysterious birth, pointing to his divine origins. In subsequent writings known as the Puranas dating from the 9th Century A.D., there are comprehensive descriptions of Krishna’s battles with demons, dragons and a tyrant king, whom he eventually supplants as a local prince.
Yet Krishna as the youthful, high-spirited (but never mean) prankster is most well-known and is depicted artistically in his flirtations with the Gopis, the legendary milk-maids who adore him. The high-point of his relationship with them is when he manifests in a multiple form for them, so each one is happy as they dance in the enchanted forest by night in the great circle dance called the Ras Mandala. In this respect, he embodies the spirit of love and abundance, for Krishna had many roles to play as a savior to the ordinary “cow folk” that he lived with, representing the intervention of the Divine that is balanced with an earth-loving aspect.
Krishna is a mighty hero who seems playful and mischievous, albeit loving. But from the inspiration of the lyrical love poets of the Gita Govinda, Krishna’s epic, is told, an erotic love affair with the esteemed and loyal village girl Radha, whom he charmed into the forest at night with his flute playing. This aspect of Krishna appeals to the Hindu cult of sacred Tantra, or finding union with the Divine through sexual union. The literature is both rapturously poetic in its love of life and is also highly sensuous regarding Krishna’s abilities to charm the opposite sex. As Nigel Frith rightly declares, “The standing of Krishna today in India is a blend…almost every sect of Hinduism, and Hinduism out of all religions is the most free and comprehensive, gives Krishna some veneration.” (The Legend of Krishna, 1976:13)
Rama: Rama, also known as Rama-chandra, is a noble, heroic figure in the mythology of India. It is written that “in almost every Indian tongue there is a vast epic, the Ramayana, which recounts his exploits, and any storyteller can make a crowd sob by saying or chanting his name.” (New Larousse Encyclopedia Of Mythology, 1968:217) The Ramayana is an epic poem also containing later additions, and most likely crystallized just before the birth of Christ.
In the Ramayana, Rama is another incarnation of Vishnu. He appears as a prince who is heir to the throne and is married to the lovely Sita, who is an incarnation of the wise and beautiful goddess Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu. Rama exemplifies “flowing with the dharma” by voluntarily exiling himself from the kingdom because of family politics. This occurred when his step-mother, the current queen, interfered with the succession to the throne by installing her own son, based on a boon once promised her by the king. The son assumes the title of regent only, for Rama’s sake, but Rama righteously withdraws to a forest hermitage with his beloved wife Sita and Rama’s brother.
In demonstrating the continuing struggle between good and evil, Rama must fight many demons in the forest. The King of Demons, Ravena, finally avenges himself and abducts Sita, the model Hindu wife, to live in his kingdom. Rama is horrified and searches everywhere, finally enlisting the aid of the great monkey king’s general, the god Hanuman, who is shown with a monkey head on a human body. Because of his brave help, Hanuman is considered a “much-loved deity in Hinduism and all monkeys are held sacred.” (Religions Of The World, 1969:410)
Together, Rama and Hanuman fight Ravena in his kingdom of Lanka, and when Rama shoots him with a poison arrow, Sita is released from the palace where she has been captive. While there, Ravena made advances to her but she loyally refused them, thus gaining his respect. However, because she lived in another man’s palace, Sita must now prove her innocence with a public trial. She builds a funeral pyre and steps into the flames declaring her love for Rama and imploring the protection of the fire god Agni. He does not burn her, but rather is seen to rise radiantly with her on his lap, to the delight of her husband, who believed in her virtue all along.
Interestingly, the last book of the Ramayana, which was probably added later, ends differently. Rama has to sorrowfully banish Sita in his duty to please the people, who do not believe in Sita’s purity. Ultimately, after many trials, she is redeemed when she asks her Mother, Earth, to consume her. Rama dies soon after to take up once again his form as the all-encompassing Vishnu.
The ultimate significance of the tale of Rama and Sita lies in the importance of right living, or karma-yoga. Rama is a model prince, and Sita is the model Hindu wife, loyally serving her husband to the point of surrendering her life. In the Ramayana, ”Dharma (moral duty, righteousness), as a major goal in life, overrides Artha (pursuit of wealth, honor and fame) and Kama (pursuit of pleasure)…Rama and Sita are divine exemplars of Dharma.” (Religions Of The World, p. 412)
Brahma The Trimurti (Trinity): It is important in a discussion of mythology to present the iconography of the Trimurti, for it reflects the essence of Hindu philosophy. The three concepts of creation, preservation, and destruction are inseparable from one another: They represent the cycles of life, and also of liberation from the world of illusion by “death of the ego”—the wondrous attainment that is called “moksha.” The following brief descriptions of the gods and their roles will be helpful in understanding this.
Brahma represents the creative powers of the universe, creator of the worlds. He sets each great cycle of time in motion. In some depictions, he has four faces and arms, holding the four sacred Vedas or other sacred objects. As “the father of gods and men,” he was born in a golden egg. With his four faces, he pursued and won for his wife the female that he birthed from his own “ immaculate substance.” (New Larousse Encyclopedia Of Mythology, 1968:344) She is popularly known as Sarasvati, among other names, and is venerated as the goddess of music, wisdom and knowledge.
In artistic depictions, Brahma can ride either on a swan or a peacock, but in many representations he is seen sitting in meditation on a lotus that grows from the navel of Vishnu. In this aspect he represents austerity and the inward search of self-inquiry, as he was advised to engage in by Vishnu himself.
Given the interesting image of this relationship to Vishnu, it has been observed that Brahma is the “lord of wisdom from whose head the four Vedas are said to have sprung…[and] worshipped as the first member in the Hindu trinity. Though in earlier times the supreme god, in the later mythology he frequently occupied a position inferior to that of Vishnu and Shiva.” The emergence of the two strands of popular worship, the Vaishnavite and the Shaivite traditions, seems to reflect this.
Vishnu: Vishnu has qualities of being both transcendent and personal. As the transcendent god, he protects the worlds as the “the unconquerable preserver…and it is this quality of preservation that becomes his major attribute.” (Religions Of The World, 1969:419) As the un-manifest aspect of Brahman, the Ultimate Reality, Vishnu protects of the Universe from his place in paradise. He is shown lying slumbering on the great serpent Ananta, symbolizing eternity, and they are floating on an ocean of milk, or on the static state of absolute, uniform totality.
As the personal god, Vishnu multiplies: first, he emanates his manifestation as the divine feminine through his wife Lakshmi, who is goddess of abundance, beauty and harmony. Ultimately he manifests in many shapes, as “avatar incarnations” on earth, to help humans. To intervene in the affairs of men when the burden of sorrow was too great to bear is a topic of many myths. Vishnu is also formidable in his multiple god-forms. The gods Rama and Krishna are two of Vishnu’s more notable incarnations represented in the Epic writings known as the Ramayana and the Bhagavad-Gita. Lakshmi, in turn, has incarnations that are consorts to those incarnations of Vishnu. For example, as the goddess Sita, she is consort to Rama.
Vishnu is most often shown as a blue-colored and kingly god with a crown and four arms. His hands are shown bearing the conch shell of creation; the mace of sovereignty; the lotus of creative unfoldment; and a disk, or wheel, that represents both the sun and a weapon. Sometimes he is shown with a sword, representing wisdom. A jewel in the center of his chest symbolizes the pure, undefiled aspect of the world, which he protects. The color of his skin can represent the deepness of space that separates god from man, and reflects his infinity. Krishna, one of his incarnations, is also blue. Another interpretation is that “dark blue or black is the color of ether, the all-pervading element in the universe, and thus a symbol of the all-pervading god.” (Religions Of The World, 1969:421)
Shiva: Shiva is a very old god in the Hindu pantheon, and is known as the Great Destroyer. However, Shaivites worship him as being all three aspects as well as “non-dual,” thus giving him the title of Mahadeva (Great God). In his ancient origins from the Indus Valley he was associated with a bull, and other symbols of fertility, as well as with a terrifying god of death called Rudra. However, in regards to Shiva it is written that “his name means ‘the favorable’ or ‘the benevolent’ and was meant to propitiate a dangerous deity who breathes pestilence and death.” (New Larousse Encyclopedia Of Mythology, 1968:342)
As the Destroyer, Shiva rules over the state of death. In depictions he is seen sometimes wearing a necklace of skulls as the overseer of demons. However, in the transcendent state, this death symbolizes the cremation of the ego of the spiritual seeker. Shiva is also “the prince of ascetics, and his worshipers follow an essentially ascetic discipline…[for when] he remains in eternal meditation—the motionless center of movement.’’ (New Larousse Encyclopedia Of Mythology, 1968:221) In this guise one can see the third eye on his forehead and the matted hair of the ascetic, of which its many strands represent the sacred Ganges River, where devout Hindus bathe themselves ritually.
In the oldest traditions, Shiva renews after destroying, and he is worshipped as the principle of continuity in the ancient form of the “lingam,” which is a smooth, phallic-formed rock. The symbol of the yoni (the vaginal opening) is associated in Mahadevi—the one great Mother Goddess from ancient goddess cults in India. Among one of her names is Parvati, wife of Shiva and goddess of love and procreation. Parvati is also the mother of the popular, benevolent god, the elephant-headed Ganesha.
In many popular images, Shiva is portrayed as the Mahadeva with all the attributes of the Trimurti. She is the Dancing Shiva, “dancing within a circle (or ellipse) bordered with flames, which signify the illusory, transitory nature of the world.” (Religions Of The World, 1969:423) He has four arms and hands, and stands on one foot. In the left hand is a flame, signifying the temporal nature of life, death and change. The other left hand points to the raised left leg and signifies grace in attaining “moksha” and “release from the world of time and change, of karma and samsara.” In one of the right hands of the dancing Shiva is a drum. This represents his creation of the illusory world which “has its source in the rhythmic pattern of Shiva’s drum and dance.” (Religions Of The World, 1969:425) The other right hand is an upraised palm, a gesture of reassurance inviting the lack of fear resulting from not identifying with the world of the senses but rather the Ultimate Reality. The Dancing Shiva stands on the body of a demon dwarf Muyalaka, who symbolizes time and illusion, so that he both crushes evil and ignorance while raising his left leg in liberation from its power.
Shakti: Another popular sect in Hinduism, besides the Vaishnavite and Shaivite, is known as the Shakta Movement. Its followers worship Devi, the Great Goddess, personified as the Shakti (divine feminine) of the god Shiva. The system of belief is based on early writings called Tantras, which consist of divine dialogues between the Shiva and Devi.
The Shakta philosophy is complicated in its steps toward attainment of salvation, but its basic approach is a non-dual, in which the One is the combination of Shiva as inert consciousness and Shakti as creative force. The One manifests in the universe through the power of Shakti, and Devi, under many names (such as Kali, Durga and local goddesses) is absolute—creator, preserver and destroyer—the mother of the universe. Shaktas use kundalini yoga as a practice, in which “Kundalini (Shakti) is coaxed upward through six psychic centers of the body [chakras] until she reaches the thousand-petaled lotus at the crown of the head.” (Religions Of The World, 1969:465)
The very redeeming feature of this sect is that it accepts women, as well as all classes and foreigners, to attain the path of high knowledge. It is written that “women can become spiritual directors (gurus), and it is considered a special honor to be initiated into the mysteries of the cult by a woman.” The Shaktas strongly oppose sacrifice of female animals, and forbid any harm to women and girls.
The Four Ashramas
Although there are numerous rites and practices of worship in the history of Hinduism, in terms of religious influences on lifestyle, it is important to highlight the following foundational tenets, now enjoying much popularity in the western world. With the development of new philosophical thought in the Upanishads, specific devotional paths and a “philosophy of life” crystallized. The concept of seeking “moksha” by living an ideal life—one of ultimate renunciation—was designed in what was called the doctrine of the “ashramas.” The specific paths to this liberation were called “margas.”
In the doctrine Four Ashramas, it is encouraged that a boy first participate in a rite that establishes him in his class of society. This happens between the age of 8 and 12, following which he lives with his “guru,” or spiritual teacher, for 12 years. As a Brahmacharin, or student, he studies the Vedas and learns to obey and serve the guru (women have not been allowed to read the Vedas, traditionally). Then he can marry and establish a household, known as the Householder stage, in which he lives an honorable and devout life. He graduates from this to the Forest Dweller, after his first grandson is born or his hair grays. At this time, his wife may accompany him to a forest hermitage where he will meditate and reflect on philosophical ideas and religious symbols. The final stage is one of the Wandering Ascetic, in which he totally renounces the world and becomes a mendicant, seeking only Brahman and self-realization. When “moksha,” or Union with the Divine, is attained, “never again will the spirit be entangled in the bonds of karma and samsara…[he] is called a ‘jivanmukta,’ a soul that is liberated while still alive.” ( Religions Of The World,1969:393) A man at this point in his life lives only until his residual karma is worked out.
These are the Four Ashramas: Brahma charm, Housholder, Forest Dweller and Wondering Ascetic.
While most men have been content to remain in the stage of the Householder, in modern India there are often rooms or small places within the home where the ideals of the last two stages can be followed. As well, modern ascetics belong to religious orders, rather than being the products of the sequence of these life stages. They may become great teachers with followings in their residences or schools known as ashrams. While women were never allowed to actually study religion, they were free to worship and therefore could be recognized and venerated as saints and teachers if their lives displayed great natural wisdom and healing powers.
The Yogas
There have existed throughout time in Hinduism various paths to enlightenment, called "margas." They can be suited, respectively, to individuals with differing social and personality factors. They are also known as yogas. A yogi (or yogini) is one who seeks liberation by any of these approaches or by other less traditional methods. A yogi may also refer to a person who has attained super-sensory powers, usually through austere ascetic practices.
In describing the four traditional paths, first there is the marga of knowledge, known as Jnana-Marga (Jnana Yoga), denoting a path of study and contemplation of the scriptures. The path includes giving up the gratifications of the senses in the desire to attain moksha and the search for inner peace. This path has been historically followed by men of the higher classes such as the Brahmin, and also by men in the next class in the sequence of varnas, the Kshatriya (whose members were traditionally the public protectors, soldiers and governmental administrators).
The way of work, Karma-Marga (Karma Yoga), became known in the Classical Age, since it was previously believed that renunciation was the only way to enlightenment. A post-Vedic scripture called the Bhagavad-Gita posited that giving up work in the world was not essential, if it was performed with ego-less intention. This philosophy teaches that attachment to recognition and ambitions in work are the causes of karma and rebirth. Therefore, surrendering this ego attachment and unselfishly devoting the fruits of one’s work to the greater good can bring liberation, as exemplified by the great modern Indian leader Gandhi. This path could be suited to the Kshatriyas or to the Sudras, the social class who perform as menial workers, domestic servants and simple farmers.
Bhakti-Marga (Bhakti Yoga), the yoga of loving devotion to a personal god, was exemplified in the Bhagavad-Gita. The scriptures approved this path to liberation for Sudras and for women, and encouraged Divine Union through complete surrender to God. This is the main path for Vaishnavite devotees, who have at their basis of ritual many love songs and poems. Through the bhakti way of release, it is taught that all egoic and selfish desires will be consumed in the ecstasy of worship. The popular god-hero Krishna exemplifies this path of love in the Bhagavad-Gita.
In the classical path of Raja-Marga (Raja Yoga), which means the Royal Road, there exist three main disciplines. The discipline dealing with morality includes rules against violence of any kind, sexual intercourse, and material possessions beyond the strictest needs. As well, personal cleanliness, the study of God with awareness of God as the prime motive for living, and other austerities are observed. In the discipline of body control, yogic postures known as “asanas” and breath control are practiced rigorously. Finally, concentration of the mind dictates that the senses withdraw from external objects and turn inward in meditation. In order to achieve the intuitive realization of Brahman, the state of moksha, the tool of meditation is essential. It is described as “complete absorption, concentration of the mind on pure spirit in its true nature until the final stage of absorption, ‘samadhi’ (trance) is reached—the goal of the three kinds of discipline.” (Religions Of The World, 1969:396)
The Yugas
It would be well to note here the cyclical regard for time in traditional Hindu thought. It was written in the Vishnu Purana that time is infinite and consists of endless repetitions of the four great ages, or "yugas." A brief overview follows:
The first yuga is the Satya, or Krita, Yuga. It is the Golden Age of the world, where there is harmony, no vices or disease, and happiness reigns. In the next one, the Treta Yuga, there is a decline of human ethics and Vedic sacrifices are needed to nullify selfishness and reward-seeking on the part of humans. The third epoch is the Dvapara Yuga, where there is further decline, with diseases and catastrophes occurring. Finally there is the Kali Yuga, where there is extreme human misery characterized by fear and anxiety, hunger and disease. Each age is less long than the last, with the Kali Yuga being about one quarter as long as the Golden Age, which then returns to begin the cycle again. It has been popularly calculated that our present time happens to fall within the last stages of a Kali Yuga.
Within such a philosophy, it is naturally assumed that, “The wise man is aghast at being caught on this relentless, repetitive wheel of time…his ardent desire is liberation from this circular time process into the plane of eternity.” (Religions Of The World, 1969:413)
Some major influences contributing to “mainstream” Hinduism have been illustrated in the preceding paragraphs by the transition from the Vedic to the Epic and Classical Ages, culminating in the Golden Age of Indian culture. The Golden Age flourished under the Gupta dynasty, in power from the third century A.D. until invasions by central Asian peoples brought it into decline by 550 A.D.
During the first millennium A.D. when Hinduism was achieving full expression, artists rose to glory and learned Brahmins studied the Vedas as well as later writings, birthing philosophies of logic and the Dharma. The first major university was created, which became a famous center of Buddhist learning until it was destroyed by the Muslims at the end of the millennium.
Indeed, the Postclassical epoch (approximately 1100-1800 A.D.) “witnessed less innovative religious impulses than the preceding epoch of classical Hinduism or the succeeding one of neo-Hinduism.” (Religions Of The World 1969:591) Certainly religious thought was influenced by the rise of Buddhism and the Muslim invasions, but many of the great Indian philosophers who followed would base their philosophies on the treatises of non-dualism growing out of the Vedas and the traditions honoring those principles.
Other Hindu Dieties
AdiBuddha: This was the Primordial Buddha (Kungtu Zangpo, Samantabhadra) who rose to prominence in the 11th century as a result of an attempt to transform Mahayana Buddhism into a monothesitic religion in the far east, inspired by a line in the Prajanaparamita concerning a Buddha who existed before time began. In Nepal, AdiBuddha came to be seen as infinite, omniscient and the supreme mandala of creation. He gives rise to the five Tathagatas or Dhyani Buddhas. The Nyingma teachings of Tibet held all as primordially enlightened and spontaneously present in the Primordial Buddha's mandala. Adibuddha in this context is called Kungtu Zangpo who emanates Vajradhara, the Celestial Buddha. His shakti consort is Adidharma.
Aditi: She is a Hindu mother goddess, regarded as the personification of earth. Her breasts are its center. Her name means "Infinity" or Free of Bounds. She is symbolized by the immortal cow and is said to embody unlimited light, consciousness and unity. Aditi is usually depicted as the mother of the Great God Vishnu. As she appears in the Vedas, she is the consort of Brahma, the Creator. She is also the mother of the Adityas, the deities who protect the world from chaos and ignorance. She rules over the divine ordering of the world and is said to be able to free all those who believe in her from sickness and sin. Whereas Aditi corresponds to the universal and divine in humankind, her sister, Diti, corresponds to all that is individual, human, and divided.
Adityas: They were the offspring of Aditi, the Hindu mother goddess. They are usually said to number seven or eight deities, including Mitra and Varuna. However in later times, there were sometimes said to be 12 Adityas, each of whom was associated with the sun as a source of life, and each connected with a month of the year. The Adityas are believed to offer salvation from all ills. Martanda, the eighth son of Aditi, is sometimes regarded as the divine ancestor of humanity.
Agastya: He was a great Hindu sage who was said to have been conceived when the beautiful Urvasi, one of the Apsaras slept with both Mitra and Varuna together. Agastya caused any obstacle standing in the way of universal harmony to move. When a range of mountains threatened to grow so high they would block the sun, Agastya willed it to shrink down. On another occasion Agastya helped the hero Rama, an Avatar of Vishnu. He gave Rama a magical weapon in order to destroy a terrible monster, Ravana. The magic weapon’s point was made of sunlight and fire, and it weighed as much as Mt. Meru and Mandara put together. The arrow struck Ravana, killed him, and then magically returned to Rama.
Agni: Also known as Fire. He is one of the chief deities of the Rig Veda, the sacred Hymns of Hinduism. He is both the protective god of the hearth and the god of the sacrificial fire. In the latter role, he mediates between deities and human beings by taking sacrifices to the gods. Agni appears in the sky as lightning and is regarded as both cruel and kind. Although he dispels darkness, he consumed his parents as soon as he was born and comsumes the bodies on the cremation pyre. He is referred to as the son of heaven and earth, and is usually said to emerged from either the sun or from lightning. Other sources regard him as the son of Aditi and Kasyapa and he is sometimes said to have been born from stone or wood rubbing together. One of the guardian gods of the world, Agni can grant immortality and purify people after death. He looked after the monkey god Hanuman when the demon King of Lanka, Ravana set light to his tail. The god is portrayed as red in color, with two or three heads, several arms, a long beard and clothes of flames.
Airavata: This was the great white elephant ridden by Indra, the king of the gods. One myth tells how the goddess Paravati invited all the gods to a great party held to celebrate the birth of her son, Ganesha. Sani, the planet Saturn, at first refused the invitation, but Paravati insisted that he accept. When Sani looked at the child the baby's head was reduced to ashes; Vishnus went in search of another head for the child and returned with the head of the elephant Airavata. As the chariot of the sky god, the clouds are often said to be Airavata's body. The elephant is called the thunderer sometimes in relation to this myth.
Akshobya: He was one of the five dhyani Buddhas or "Great Buddhas of Wisdom who rules over the Pure Land Paradise Abhirati. His name means unmovable and he represents perfect body; he subjugates the passions, and as Vajrasattva, enjoys mirror like awareness wisdom.
Amitabha: One of the five meditation Buddhas; dhyani meaning meditation. They are Amogosiddhi, Aksobya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Vairocana. The enlightened Buddha family mandala.
Amoghasiddhi: One of the five meditation Buddhas; dhyani meaning meditation. They are Amogosiddhi, Aksobya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Vairocana. The enlightened Buddha family mandala.
Amrita: The soma or nectar of the gods conferring visions and immortality upon the drinker.
Bodhisattvas: Buddhas to be, enlightened warriors on the path to full enlightenment. Bodhisattvas are interconnected into the enlightened matrix of being.
Chacrasamvara: A popular tantric Deity of Tibetan Buddhism, meaning "Lord of the Bliss Wheels" that was brought from India to Tibet during the second dissemination of Buddhism by the Mahasiddhas, mainly by Naropa and Marpa. Chacrasamvara is the elaborate version of Samvara; he is in union with his consort Vajrayogini and has twelve hands holding twelve implements: a severed head of Brahma, a trivangha (ritual trident), a lasso, an axe, a vajra, a bell, an amrita pouch, a khatvanga (ritual staff), a damaru drum, a vajra cutter and his elephant skin garment.
Dharmapalas: Dharma protectors; guardian spirits of the dharma taken from indigenous religions such as Bon and Mongolian Shamanism and incorporated into the dharma as protectors.
Dhyani Buddhas: The five meditation Buddhas; dhyani meaning meditation. They are Amogosiddhi, Aksobya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Vairocana. The enlightened Buddha family mandala.
Dipankara: A sea monster which is part hippo and part crocidile; a decorative protector and water spirit.
Durga: She is the completely empowered form of Kali; Durga is a woman god with all attributes of all other deities in the Hindu pantheon. The myth is that she alone could destroy a terrible Buffalo Headed demon that was ravishing the land so all the devas and devis gave her their powers and weapons to use in battle.
Ganga: This was the holy river of Hinduism, running throughout India. The Ganges was a reflection of the Celestial River, the Milky Way in the sky. The Ganga's stars were the yogis who meditated on the river. The world was said to come from the river, its waterfalls running down the head of Shiva from his sunspot. The holy waters of the Ganga are said to heal and purify all obscurations of body and mind.
Garuda: This was a mythical bird that was spontaneously self-born and able to fly. The Garuda came to represent the yogi of Dzockchen, the Great Perfection in that it was a natural adept at flight and can go the highest of any bird, even out into the furthest reaches of the cosmos. The Garuda was the vehicle of Krishna when he went into battle and it is said only the Garuda can properly digest the serpent of hate in order to turn hatred into enlightenment purifying all negative afflictions.
Gautama Buddha: The historical Buddha who attained enlightenment under the bodhi tree. Also known as Siddhartha.
Maya: The beautific illusion of reality that is transcended by meditation and the dharma. Maya-Devi “illusion of the gods” is said to be the mother of Buddha. She passes away at his birth.
Meru: The mythical mountain of Hindu cosmology where all the gods and anit-gods would live.
Nagas: Serpent people who live under water and in rivers; they usually guard great treasures
Nandi: The sacred bull of Shiva, reminiscent of the cosmic bull of Sumeria.
Padmasambhava: The great Master Padmasambhava was invited and proved able to subjugate the demons, malicious spirits, enemies of Buddhism, including the Bon preists, making it possible to establish the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet at Samye (Bsam Yas) in 779 A.D. Padmasambhava was given one of the King’s wives as a consort. She was named Yeshe Tsogyal, who also became a Buddha Dakini due to the tantric teachings of Padmasambhava. Padmasambhava firmly established the dharma in Tibet with 24 main disciples as well as thousands of minor ones. Tantric treasures were left all over Tibet for later generations to read and become empowered by. When discussing lineage, Padmasambhava, usually refered to as Guru Rinpoche, the Precious One, and Second Buddha, holds a monumental significance as the first disseminator of Tantra in Tibet. The stories of Padmasambhava's tantric defeat of the local spirits and demons of Tibet are pervasive and popular, and they figure prominently in the ontological myths of many pilgrimage sites across Tibet. Buddhism is famous for its ability to accomodate local deities into its pantheon. In the case of Tibet, most of the local deities became regarded as "mundane gods" ('jigs rten pa'i lha), that is, deities who are subject to the law of karma and cycle of rebirth, who after a lifetime as a particular god will take rebirth in some other form. The vast pantheon of deities imported from India included such gods, as well as “supramundane gods “ ('jigs rten las das pa'i lha), that is, deities, who, although they appear in horrifying forms, such as the protector of the Dalai Lama, the goddess Pelden Lhamo, are in fact enlightened beings already liberated from the cycle of birth and death.
Pandavas: The family of protagonists in the epic Mahabarata who are victorious by the end of the story against their evil worshipping foes. Many magical beings and weapons are used by them.
Purusha: The cosmic first man who is sacrificed to the gods in the Vedas so that reality can come into being. Purusha is akin to Adam Kadmon in the Garden of Eden.
Shiva: The “destroyer” god of Hindu mythology. "Ever gracious, ever blissful Lord whose compassion is like the ocean of nectar; whose body shines white as camphor and the jasmine flower; purest truth, robed in space, omnipresent; loving and beloved Lord of yogis, whose coiled and matted dread-locked hair is drenched from the spray of the celestial Ganja river; adorned with ashes, garlanded with snakes and human skulls; three eyed Lord of the triple world: trident in one hand, in the other, blessing; embodiment of Gnosis; giver of Nirvana; everlasting, pure, flawless; amiable, benefactor to all that lives, God of Gods." (verse 6-10 Mahanirvana Tantra, Brahmasamaj, Calcutta, 1876). So the tantric poet describes Shiva, consort and husband of the goddess. As Mahakala, the Great Energy, he dances for Her pleasure, he is also her Lord.
Vairochana: One of the five meditation Buddhas; dhyani meaning meditation. They are Amogosiddhi, Aksobya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Vairocana. The enlightened Buddha family mandala.