This following information can be somewhat misleading as it is general in scope and taken from references, rather than any deep study of the religious beliefs themselves. It is hoped, however, that it will present enough of an accurate overview with regard to the general beliefs as well as to any peculiarities relevant to the doctrine of reincarnation. Also, only those religions likely to be predominantly familiar in Western thinking, or essential to the development of reincarnationist doctrine are included.

Hinduism: Rather than the Buddha, Hindu's follow the teachings of Krishna in the Bhagavad-Gita. In the teachings of Krishna found here, the sum of life is of compassion and love, rooted not just in sentiment and emotion, but in spiritual knowledge. Such knowledge demonstrates the fundamental Oneness and eternality of all beings in their progression toward a higher life.

The Hindu view holds that spirit no more depends on the body it inhabits than body depends on the clothes it wears or the house it lives in. When we outgrow a suit or find our house too cramped we exchange these for ones that offer our bodies freer play. Hinduism rejects Western thinking (which finds its way even into Western views on reincarnation) that projects its problems and concerns to some source "out there"—even past lives. Hindus hold that our current state of being is ours and nothing more nor less than what we have chosen for our current state of growth. The cards we have been dealt are the ones that we have chosen, but we have freedom to play the hand any way we see fit.

A 1971 survey by India's Illustrated Weekly magazine entitled, "Will Hinduism Survive?" offered a probing study at the prevailing trends of this religion. Insightful for our purposes is that, regarding the religion itself, it was found that much of the meaning in ritual had been lost and there was an overall antipathy to the sacred writings. It found, however, that Karma and reincarnation are more than mere dogma to them, but a living way of being "like the air they breathe."

Sikhism: Beings are caught in the whirling wheel of samsara, involuntary births and deaths, because of self-identification with the body and its environment. "The aim of liberation is not to escape from the world of space and time but to be enlightened, wherever we may be. It is to live in this world knowing that it is divinely informed. For those who are no longer bound to the wheel of samsara, life on earth is centered in the bliss of eternity."

Jainism: The Jains are a large religious body in India, and their teachings closely resemble Buddhism, but the religion predates it by many centuries. The Jainist's claim that Gautama (the "Buddha" from whose teachings "Buddhism" derives) was actually a student disciple of one of their Mahatmas.

The Jainists believe that present life is nothing more than a link of the great chain of transmigratory circuit, and that the doctrine of karma is meaningless in the absence of a fully developed doctrine of transmigration. The soul is the entity to whom a collection of habits and shapes belong, but the soul is not to be understood through these habits and shapes (personality characteristic traits). In psychological parlay, personal immortality is impossible but individual immortality is one of the deepest truths of life.

Buddhism: Here it is important to point out several things: first, that Buddhism is not the following of the teachings of one particular individual, for Buddha, in Sanskrit, means only "one who is fully enlightened." According to Buddhism, numerous Buddhas have appeared at suitable intervals, to teach students and to essentially reinvigorate and purify the teachings. Second, as with "Christianity," not all Buddhist teaching is of the same accord. Just as one might find differences between Christian denominations, so with Buddhist teachings, albeit to a far lesser extent. The most major differences are between what is referred to as "Northern" and "Southern" Buddhism, owing its name to the geography of origin and practice.

Southern Buddhism: is also referred to as the "Doctrine of the Elders," and this is what might also be referred to as "popular" Buddhism. This form of Buddhism is often read to imply that there is no passage of soul in any sense from one life to another. The Southern version, briefly, is that at death a man's tendencies and traits of character are, by a chain reaction of cause and effect, reborn in some other person or individual, but without any connecting link of continuing ego.

Northern Buddhism: Northern Buddhism is said to have preserved the teaching given by Buddha to his initiated disciples. Within this teaching is the unmistakable teaching of the doctrine of permanent identity which unites all the incarnations of a single individual. Most adherents of this teaching propose that the doctrine of karma is rendered almost senseless if divorced from the idea of a reincarnating ego.

Another key distinction involves a reading of portion of text of the Buddha's teaching, which reads, "death, utter death." While the Southern Buddhists take this to mean that the chain of Karma was severed at the death of Buddha, and that Nirvana is an oblivion, the Northern Buddhists hold that this is a complete misreading of the text. To the Northern Buddhist, Karma endlessly continues, and the text in question involves Buddha entering Nirvana, eternal bliss of true Selfhood, and free from the cycle of reincarnation.

Tibetan Buddhism: This belief system is distinctive for its belief in the successive rebirths of the highest Lamas: the Dalai, the Panchen and some others. The most well known continuation of a soul through various incarnations is the idea that the Dalai Lama is the same soul, reborn over and over as the Dalai Lama, never any other role. This soul returns each lifetime with particular traits, like a particular cowlick in the hair, certain markings and remembrances of certain items that were possessed before in the previous life, and so on. After a Dalai Lama dies, an all out search ensues within a few years, scouring the country for the next incarnation of the Dalai Lama, the same soul. A little boy is always the subject of interest, but some have wondered if it is possible that the Dalai Lama might reincarnate as a female, and that perhaps the lineage has been broken. This has been a point of contention, and it is also wondered if the "real" Dalai Lama is really found each time around. There are often disagreements about who to pick, as there are usually several candidates. In the end, one little boy is selected to be the next Dalai Lama based on various tests. None the less, any little boy raised the way that a Dalai Lama would be raised is going to become a wise and kind being. Who knows if it is really the same soul reincarnating over and over again. The upbringing is the same, and the respect with which the little boy is treated creates a benevolent and wise man who helps his fellow humans. The modern day Dalai Lama, who lives outside of Tibet in order to avoid execution by the Chinese who have waged a war against Tibetan traditions, writes wonderful books and gives many talks and lectures that all portray the benevolent spirit of the Dalai Lama.

Personally, I would think a soul would be bored with reincarnating in the role in every lifetime, but perhaps this is not the case for the Dalai Lama. After all, it is a rather elevated role, and it isn't as bad as some roles could be. For instance, no one would want to repeat the life of a poverty stricken peasant over and over again! The Dalai Lama role would be preferable.

Perhaps owing to the ongoing presence of a Dalai Lama, Tibetan Buddhism may be the most "cultivated" form of Buddhism, in that the living presence of a revered teacher leads to a persistent presence in the minds of the public, as well as new writings and explanations on the subject. For instance, this, from the 14th Dalai Lama: "...the human body can be perceived—it has form and color—and therefore, its immediate source or cause must also have these qualities. But mind is formless, and hence its immediate source or cause must also be formless...Both mind and body being in this life as soon as conception occurs. The immediate source of a body is that of its parents. But physical matter cannot produce mind, nor mind matter. The immediate source of a mind must, therefore be a mind which existed before the conception took place; the mind must have a continuity from a previous mind." Obviously, Tibetan Buddhism agrees with Northern Buddhism on the doctrine of one ego perpetually reincarnating. A distinct point, though, is that the Dalai Lama is here indicating the soul's presence from the point of conception, whereas others (both within Buddhism and reincarnationists in general) have different and varying timetables at which they commit the soul to the fetus.

Freud & Psychology: Of note here regarding Buddhism is the following comments of Sigmund Freud, the "father of Psychoanalysis," and certainly the keystone in the development of modern psychology. A personal student of Sigmund Freud's reported that Freud allegedly called Buddha, "the greatest psychologist of all time." The following excerpt is from what is considered to be the most widely influential of the canonical writings, the Dhammapada, in which the Buddha is speaking. In his personal writings, Freud excerpted this passage:

"All that we are is the result of what we have thought: all that we are is founded on our thoughts and formed of our thoughts... Knowing that this body is like froth, knowing that its nature is that of a mirage...the disciple is untouched by death. The craving of the thoughtless man is like the creeper that eats up the tree on which it fastens. From life to life he is like a monkey seeking fruits in a forest..."

These thoughts are indicative of the teachings of Buddhism; that self-will, lusts, desires, etc... are the things that keep man returning in the cycle of rebirths until such time as he has left such desires behind and becomes one with the Lord. If one studies the works of Freud in this context, it becomes apparent that a whole new tone emerges. Though often contemporarily criticized for outdated morals and values that skewed his perceptions of the psyche, one begins to see that with the Law of Karmic evolution, Freud was actually much closer to the truth than ever before realized. For instance, his interpretation (snidely called his "fixation") with sexuality and symbolism is probably very accurate. Given the Victorian mores of his era, it would seem conclusive that those with a high karmic debt regarding sexual proclivities or excesses would incarnate at a time of severe repression.

Another point to consider, is that in the original interpretation of Freud's work into English, and in every subsequent translation to this date, his use of the word "soul" when talking about the dream state, was intentionally translated into the word "psyche." Now, more than ever, to re-read and study his work in light of his Buddhist leanings, his belief in reincarnation, and his use of the word "soul" when discussing the dream state, one begins to see how the arena of human psychology might be profoundly influenced and changed.

Taoism: Taoism evolves from the teachings of philosopher Lao Tzu, through the writings of his student Chuang Tzu. The belief in reincarnation is not nearly so tied to "karma" per ser, nor specifically to transmigration and incarnation in a series of "lives" as it is a belief in an endless cycle of life. From the writings of Chuang Tzu: "Birth is not a beginning; death is not an end. There is existence without limitation; there is continuity without a starting-point... There is birth, there is death, there is issuing forth, there is entering in. To have attained to the human form must be always a source of joy. And then, to undergo countless transitions, with only the infinite to look forward to—what incomparable bliss is that!"

Interestingly, and somewhat problematically in a discussion of reincarnation, Taoism is perhaps less fixed in ritual or dogma than most of the other belief systems. In fact, much of Taoism involves open-ended speculation for the contemplation of being. For instance (again from the writings of Chuang Tzu): "There is something...which existed before Heaven and Earth. Oh how still it is, and formless, standing along without changing, reaching everywhere without suffering harm. It must be regarded as the Mother of the Universe. It appears to be everlasting. Its name I know not. To designate it, I call it Tao."

This brief statement is deliciously honest while tantalizingly vague for the seeker who expects certainty from teachers and wishes to have a fixed path outlined for his or her advancement.

Confucianism: Confucianism does not preach any doctrine of immortality or reincarnation, yet it does not deny them. Confucius himself avoided all discussion on these subjects. In the his writings Analects, he says, "I only hand on; I cannot create new things; I believe in the ancients, and therefore I love them." But Confucianism is more a teaching of morals and manners, a code of ethics and behavior as it were. Though students and followers have at various times been antagonistic toward each other, Confucius himself had nothing but the highest respect for Lao Tzu (Taoism). As pointed out elsewhere, one may be simultaneously a Confucian, a Taoist and a Buddhist. Thus, through Taoism or Buddhism, a Confucian may be an embracer of reincarnation.

The Egyptian Mysteries: Though much of Egypt is now Muslim, the ancient religion practiced, and still practiced in some small part, is the way of Mysteries. Like the Tibetans, the Egyptians also had a Book of the Dead, containing rituals and prayers that functioned more like spells. These spells would be recited in order to incarnate in various forms. Though there has been some controversy over whether or not the ancient Egyptians were actually reincarnationists, Herodotus is very definite on the subject, and it seems borne out by certain evidence. For instance, Amonemhat I's name was "He who repeats births," and Senusert I's name was "He whose births live." In the 19th dynasty, the ka-name of Setekhy I was "Repeater of births." By the 18th dynasty, the theory of reincarnation was already so far advanced as to include not just the Pharoahs or royal families, but the common folk as well.

As perhaps the first civilization to widely practice and document its beliefs in reincarnation, some inevitable claim can be made that these beliefs may have provided the foundation, the starting point or at least greatly influenced thinking on the subject. With that in mind, consider the teachings of the Mysteries: All Souls are derived from the one Soul of the Universe. Souls are all equal in nature, neither male nor female; this distinction exists only between bodies and not incorporeal beings. Upon death, souls are dispatched into, "...the condition which belongs to it." That is, the soul goes through a period of analyzing, exploring and understanding its life and choices intelligently, before returning to a new body that is fashioned and constructed according to "the law of equity." The law of equity here seems to be a precursor of the law of karma.

Shintoism: In Shintoism, there was no doctrine of reincarnation. According to the ancient Japanese thinking, the spirits of the dead continued to exist in the world, freely wandering and mixing with the forces of the world, and acting through them. Those who had been wicked in life remained wicked after death, and those who had been good in life became good (benevolent) gods.

Buddhism became quickly absorbed in Japan, probably due to the full and simple explanations it offered, which Shintoism had left unanswered. The doctrine of reincarnation was soothing to the people who were largely discomfited by the explanations of death and the afterlife according to Shintoism. What emerged was a peculiar blend of beliefs, with most Japanese homes having both a Shinto "god-shelf" and a Buddhist shrine. Judaism: Reincarnation is plainly set forth in the Kabala, which is (according to the Kabalists) an esoteric interpretation of the Old Testament. While there is little in the Old Testament that can be pointed to as speaking of re-birth, many questions by Jesus' disciples in the New Testament are considered indicative of Judaism's widespread belief in reincarnation. What little there is in the Old Testament is found in such verses as, "The thing that hath been, it is that which shall be...and there is no new thing under the sun." Ecclesiastes, 1:9. Also, "Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee..." Jeremiah, 4. Also, the Book of Proverbs (specifically 8:22-31) is considered to be that of Solomon reflecting upon his past lives.

It is very important to point out that the more predominant readings of these verses, by both Jews and Christians, is in that of a spiritual nature and in no way interpreted as having to do with physical re-birth. The reincarnationists merely point to these verses in support of their views. Among ancient Judaism there were three principal schools of thought; the Essenes, the Pharisees and the Sadducees. According to Josephus (in the Dead Sea Scrolls), the Pharisees "believe that souls have an immortal vigor in them [and that the virtuous] shall have power to revive and live again (on earth); on account of which doctrines they are able greatly to persuade the body of the people." Interesting here how Josephus accounts for the Pharisees popularity among the people to be, at least in part, by their doctrine of reincarnation. The fears of the unknown death and the comfort of a doctrine assuring "life as we know it" to begin again is a great attraction to many people. The Essenes believed that the bodies are corruptible, and that matter is not permanent. Only the soul is permanent. The body is a prison of sorts, to which the soul is drawn by a certain natural enticement but which subjects one to the long, painful bondage of the flesh. There is an account (again, Josephus in the Dead Sea Scrolls) which speaks of the Essenes conduct during the war with the Romans. "They smiled in their pains and laughed to scorn those who inflicted torments upon them, and resigned up their souls with great alacrity, as expecting to receive them again."

Kabalah: In A Talmudic Miscellany by Paul Isaac Hershon, we find the following selections from the Kabala: "Most souls being at present in a state of transmigrations, God requites a man now for what his soul merited in a by past time in another body, by having broken some of the 613 precepts...Thus we have the rule: no one is perfect unless he has thoroughly observed all the 613 precepts...He who neglects to observe any of the 613 precepts, such as were possible for him to observe, is doomed to undergo transmigration (once or more than once) till he has actually observed all he had neglected to do in a former state of being." So rather than a cosmic, spiritual law of balance in place (Karma), the Kabalists have a fixed and regimented formula for moving beyond incarnating in the physical plane. It must be noted that the same text mentions that, "even the lord of our prophets, Moses our Rabbi—peace be on him!—had not observed them all..."

Elsewhere we find that the Kabalists remark that "Adam, contains the initial letters of Adam, David, and Messiah; for after Adam sinned his soul passed into David, and the latter having also sinned, it passed into the Messiah." (Though how the names assigned to these individuals by English transcribers can produce such insights, one cannot fathom.) There is, however, another point. Which is the inference of not just of transmigration, but of soul, or spirit, inhabiting other individualities. This point is furthered in the following text: "Know thou that Cain's essential soul passed into Jethro, but his spirit into Korah, and his animal soul into the Egyptian. This is what Scripture saith. ‘Cain...shall be avenged sevenfold.' " (Gen. 4:24)...i.e. the initial letters of the Hebrew word rendered "shall be avenged," form the initials of Jethro, Korah and Egyptian..." Thus we have not only reincarnation, but a doctrine of transmutation and the splintering of soul into components.

There are also some writings of Rabbis and Jewish philosophers of the Hasidic movement that assert a belief in reincarnation. For example, "The belief or the doctrine of the transmigration of souls is a firm and infallible dogma accepted by the whole assemblage of our which with one accord, so that there is none to be found who would dare deny it... Indeed, there are a great number of sages in Israel who hold firm to this doctrine to that they made it a dogma, a fundamental point of our religion...as the truth of it has been incontestably demonstrated by...all the books of the Kabalists." Rabbi Manasseh Ben Israel (1604-1657), Theologian and Statesman.

Christianity: As noted in the section on Judaism, the ancient Jews believed in the periodic reincarnation of the great prophets. In their opinion, Moses was the return of Abel, the son of Adam, and the Messiah was the reincarnation of Adam himself, who had already appeared a second time as David. According to the Samaritans, the line of reincarnation went like this; Adam, Seth, Noah, Abraham, Moses. Even the closing book of the Old Testament (Malachi 4:5) offers this: "Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord." Elijah had already lived among the Jews, so, if this is to be taken literally, it would seem that God is promising his return.

While Elijah and Elias are distinctly different characters in the Old Testament, Elias is also the Greek version of the name Elijah. Therefore, the following citations offer the possibility of a meaning indicating reincarnation. From Matthew, centering on the introduction of Jesus' public ministry and works we find these distinct references: "...he asked his disciples, saying, Whom do men say that I the Son of man am? And they said, Some say that thou art John the Baptist,; some, Elias; and others, Jeremias, or one of the prophets." (16:13-14) While this would certainly indicate a prevailing belief in, if not reincarnation, then at least a resurrection in physical form, it is interesting to note the follow up question asked by Jesus, which is, "But who say ye that I am?" To which he receives the reply, "Thou art the Christ. The Son of the living God." That this was an acceptable answer to Jesus leaves one to wonder his own view on the matter of being a reincarnate soul of one of the great prophets.

Elsewhere in Matthew (17:9-13) we read, "Jesus charged them, saying, Tell the vision to no man, until the Son of man be risen again from the dead. And his disciples asked him, saying, Why then say the scribes that Elias must first come? And Jesus answered and said unto them, Elias truly shall first come, and restore all things. But I say unto you, That Elias is come already, and they knew him not, but have done unto him whatsoever they listed. Likewise shall also the Son of man suffer of them. Then the disciples understood that he spake unto them of John the Baptist [who had already been beheaded by Herod]."

This citation offers a number of questions for reflection. First is the statement, "Until the Son of man be risen again from the dead." While the centerpiece of Jesus' mission was his resurrection [not reincarnation], the use of the word "again" leads to speculation as to whether he meant that he had also previously risen. Although, it must be pointed out that several of the exhaustive Bible commentaries regard this as an issue of translation and grammar arising out of the original text, and might be more accurately rendered as "live again, haven risen from the dead." The second point is Jesus' seeming inference that Elias has already come again in the form of John the Baptist. The point should be taken, but again, the interpretation might be handled to imply that John the Baptist had the same "spirit," that is characteristics and purpose that Elias had fulfilled at an earlier time, which was to arouse and awaken a people whose faith had dulled during the long wait for God's messenger.

The other statement from Matthew is from chapter 11, verses 11 and 14: "Verily I say unto you, Among them that are born of women there hath not risen a greater than John the Baptist...And if ye will receive it, this is Elias which was for to come." Again, a reincarnationist reading of the verse would seem to imply that John the Baptist was Elias reincarnated.

All along the New Testament, from the advent of Jesus' public ministry, which briefly coincided with John the Baptist's until his beheading by Herod, there is a persistent question; Who art thou? It is asked of both Jesus and John the Baptist. In John 1: 19, we see John the Baptist directly asked by the priests and others, "Art thou Elias?" John answered that he was not. They ask again, "Art thou that Prophet?" and he again denies it. No matter what either Jesus or John meant or believed, it seems fairly certain that the Jews of the time were familiar with the doctrine of reincarnation, and expected either a reincarnation or a reappearing of the prophets of old. Tertullian, a Latin father of the Church writing around the year 207 B.C., disputes the reincarnationist interpretation of the above scriptures on the premise that Elias never died, but was translated, that is, removed from this plane without physically dying. His reappearance was not to be through a restoration of the soul to a body, but in the way of resuming a life which he had laid aside in order to fulfill prophecy. Despite the seeming of arbitrary tender in the reincarnation argument, it is important to note that the very idea of translation is not only common to some doctrines of reincarnation (as when the Self has purified within this plane and does not need death to pass into its immortal Soul self), but is also a foundational argument of Christianity. To "walk with the Lord" is to have transcended the material existence through self-knowledge and self-immolation.

Christian Gnosticism: The Gnostics (meaning "knowledge") were all reincarnationists. While there is no exact proof as to their origin or even their place in the early Church, the Gnostics have resurged in Christian interest in the last several years with the translation and printing of both portions of the Dead Sea Scrolls and The Gnostic Gospels. Though followers of Gnosticism, especially Christian reincarnationists, subscribe to a conspiracy of sorts by the Church (especially the Roman Catholic Church) to suppress the translation and printing of these documents, there need be no discussion here other than to point out the fact and to agree that it was almost certainly (if not conspiracy) censorship and repression of knowledge. Indeed the Gnostic Gospels and the Dead Sea Scrolls offer troubling puzzles, if not for the other texts included in the Bible, then for the Church dogma itself.

A growing number of scholars believe that the Gnostics may have been the descendants of the original Christians and not just an aesthetic off-shoot. As indication that the Gnostics were the inheritors of the esoteric teachings of Christ, the argument is founded on several statements, including the following: [Jesus said to his disciples] Unto you it is given to know the mystery of the Kingdom of God; but unto them that are without, all these things are done in parables. (Mark 4:11). Both St. Clement and Origen (early fathers of the Church) testified to "an esoteric lining" to Christianity, and St. Paul writes in I Corinthians 3:1-2; "And I, brethren, could not speak unto you as unto spiritual, but as unto carnal, as unto babes in Christ. I have fed you with milk, and not with meat; for hitherto ye were not able to bear it, neither yet now are ye able."

Various Gnostic schools were grouped in Alexandria around A.D. 125, a time when the teacher Basilides, who had the doctrines of the Apostles Mark and Peter, through Peter's disciple Glaucus, wrote twenty-four volumes of interpretations of the Gospels which were later burned by the Church. These writings would have most certainly been the most contemporary and the least adulterated of accounts from Christ's own teachings, and were written long before the so-called canonical Bible first evolved from the Council of Nicea in 325.A.D.

Gnosticism revolved around the central tenet of cyclic law for both the universal and the individual soul. Thus the Gnostics preached not only the doctrine of pre-existence, but also of reincarnation of human souls. They held rigidly to the infallible working out of the great law of cause and effect (karma). Though all outward semblance of Gnosticism was suppressed by both Emperors and Popes, the penalty often being death, these movements maintained a secretive and reclusive existence while maintaining hidden relationships with other groups scattered throughout the lands.

The Gnostic scriptures, and again, one must remember that these texts date contemporarily to other books found in the Old Testament as we know it today, offer very clear accounts of "the Saviour" (i.e. Jesus Christ) discussing reincarnation. "This is the chastisement of the curser...Yaluham...bringeth a cup filled with the water of forgetfulness and handeth it to the soul, and it drinketh it and forgetteth...all the regions to which it hath gone. And they cast it down into a body which will spend its time continually troubled in its heart..." "This is the chastisement of the arrogant and overweening man...it drinketh and forgetteth all things and all the regions to which it hath gone. And they cast it up into a lame and deformed body, so that all despise it persistently." "Thereafter there cometh a receiver of the little Sbaoth, the Good, him of the Midst. He himself bringeth a cup filled with thoughts and wisdom, and soberness is in it; he handeth it to the soul. And they cast it into a body which can neither sleep nor forget because of the cup of soberness which hat been handed unto it; but it will whip its heart persistently to question about the mysteries of the Light until it finds them..."

These three passages would refer to the reincarnation of an unrighteous man, a sinning soul (the first two) and a righteous man (the latter). In both cases "the cup of forgetfulness" is drunk, assuming the reason for the absence of knowledge of past lives or reincarnation. In the first two cases, however, the life is filled with distraught and despair, seemingly a Karmic punishment for "cursing" and "arrogance and pride." Here, "cursing" can be assumed to be some sort of turning away from God, or the Light, or the Way, a refusing to learn Karmic lessons of sorts, because the punishment is a continually troubled heart (conscience).

Aside from the references both Mark and Paul make (above) indicating a dual set of teachings, we also find indications with the Book of Acts and in the Epistles of a constant struggle within the early Church against a return to "other ways." A close reading of the New Testament with several scholarly Bible commentaries, as well as references within the Gnostic Gospels and the Dead Sea Scrolls indicate that a portion of this struggle was not just against paganism or dereliction of duty (backsliding into sinning) but rather against a fractious infighting against alternate beliefs concerning the problem of salvation. To put it summarily, it seems as though the Jews had for the most part always accepted transmigration (reincarnation) in some form; however, Jesus ministry and the resurrection of the same incarnate body left some dispute over the message the teaching was to take. Just as early Christians expected Jesus' "second coming" to occur in their lifetime, so too did much of his teaching become confused in its reception by the masses. Paul in particular, who was probably most responsible for the early expansion and continuation of the Church after the deaths of the apostles, was hard-pressed to keep the faith and understanding alive and immediate. Despite his efforts, we see in his constant writings to the Churches, a struggle to keep the teachings pure and to avoid a descent into mere dogma and bureaucracy.

The Christian Question: As the predominant religion in the colonizing world, it was inevitable that Christianity be exported to other countries. The ascendance of the Dark Ages forced a collusion between governments and the powers of the Church, and so the nature of that Christian faith needed to be unified and advantageous to powers both temporal and spiritual. In the viewpoint of Papists and Monarchists, reincarnation held a very dangerous place, for it—by default—placed an equality on all men. While there was an acknowledged place for "teachers," the idea of Karmic debt and salvation nullified some of the fear and control to be gained from despotic control over the masses. Also, from a purely political point of view, several ambitious peoples worked to carve out great empires (Caesar, Constantine, etc...). Apart from such questions as the equality of souls and karma challenging any sense of absolute and ultimate authority, the fragility of such empires could brook no inner dissensions within the Church, where ambitious factions worked to carve their own precarious balances of power. While the power struggles within the Church raged, there was constant interference from strong political leaders making demands of their own. In other words, in order to survive, personal and political expediency often prevailed in establishing much of what the Christian Church now accepts as an uninterrupted flow of teaching from the time of Jesus Christ until now. Though the argument against considering such things is that both the Will and the Word of God prevails through mortal circumstances, and that the temporal occurrences, however they appear within the human picture, work for the preservation of this Word, it is interesting to note several historic incidents that have been documented thoroughly. From the indications of these incidents, one can probably imagine a host of incidents both large and small that were not preserved.

Item: Pope Vigilius was the prisoner of the Emperor Constantine starting in November of 545. During Vigilius imprisonment, the Emperor instigated a local synod and later an unofficial session of Ecumenical Council which ratified his anathemas cursing the doctrines of pre-existence. Justinian effectively assumed control of the Church and his Imperial edicts defined and dictated theological doctrine. In 529 A.D. such an edict was enacted that barred "the teaching of the ancient philosophy." By refusing the idea of pre-existence, Justinian effectively eliminated by implication, reincarnation.

The eventual outcome of this event is that the Church eventually adopted the idea of a pre-existence of an immortal soul, but which was confined to one earthly visit and thereafter to an eternal stay in either Heaven or Hell.

Islam And The Koran: As a boy, Mohammed (A.D. 570-632) came into contact with a Nestorian monastery in Busra, and grew deeply interest in the religious and philosophical views of the monks, who generally believed that the idea of souls passing from body to body was a truth of being. There are some who say that upon reaching manhood, Mohammed became more and more influenced by the Nestorian teachings. In the Koran (the Muslim Holy Book) we find a number of sayings that, as with the Christian Bible, can be inferred to promote a belief in reincarnation.

"As the rains turn the dry earth into green thereby yielding fruits, similarly God brings the dead into life so that thou mayest learn." (Chapter 8, Sura Ira, Meccan Verses 6-6-13). "And He sent down rains from above in proper quantity and He brings back to life the dead earth, similarly ye shall be reborn." (Chapter 25, Sura Zakhraf, Meccan Verses 5-10-6). "[Those who doubt immortality] are dead and they do not know when they will be born again. Your God is peerless and those who have no faith in the ultimate have perverse hearts and they want to pose as great men." (Chapter 14, Sura Nahel, Verses 2-12-8).

Imam Jafer, a well-known authority in the Islamic world, said that "rebirths must be undergone before entering the Heaven world," referring to the text, "Surely they will be reborn and this law is perfect but people who do not possess wisdom do not comprehend it." (Cahpter 14, Sura Hahel Verses 4-0-10).

The Sufis: The Sufis claim to possess the esoteric philosophy of Islam, and to have preceded Mohammed by several thousand years. It was among the Sufis that the teaching of reincarnation was more especially preserved. In The Dabistan, the Sufis teach, "When the souls not yet come forth from the pit of the natural darkness of bodily matter, are nevertheless in a state of increasing improvement, then, in an ascending way, they migrate climbing up to the steps of the wished-for perfection of mankind...after which, purified of the defilement of the body, they join the world of sanctity..." The Sufi religious master said Muhammed Nurbakhsh, in Religion Of The Sufis, is shown distinguishing between tanasukh, or ordinary reincarnation, and buruz, the reincarnation of a perfect soul "for the sake of perfecting mankind."

The Druses are sometimes referred to as "The Sufis of Syria," and they are mentioned here because they figured strongly in Dr. Ian Stevenson's work (see Scientific Findings). Many theories of their origins are suggested, and their religion is described as a blending of Mohammedanism, Judaism, Tibetan Lamaism, and Christianity (strongly tinged with Gnosticism). Some of their order trace their order back to Hemsa, the uncle of Mohammed who in 625 went to Tibet in search of secret wisdom. Reincarnation is one of the fundamental teachings of the Druses.

Masonry Or Freemasonry: Particularly, the Scottish Order of Freemasonry which has some derivative influence from the Celts and Druids who believed strongly in reincarnation, and held ancestral knowledge and stories of Atlantis, from whom some believed the lands of Scotland and Ireland were populated after the great flood.

Masonry is included here only because of its prevalence among the "founding fathers" of the United States. Often shrouded in secrecy, often clouded with suspicion because of this secrecy, Freemasonry played an important function in the founding of the United States. George Washington, an active Mason, bore the title "Grand Master of America," and the Great Seal of the United States (which figures prominently on the dollar bill) is largely Masonic in character. In the 1927 book The Masonic Initiation by William Wilmshurst, Past Master, Past Provincial Grand Registrar, we find the following explanation of a formula used at Lodge-closing ceremony: "The observant Masonic student is made aware...that by some great Warden of life and death each soul is called into this objective world to labor upon itself, and is in due course summoned from it to rest from its labors and enter into subjective celestial refreshment, until once again it is recalled to labor." "...the soul in the course of its career weaves and wears out many bodies, and is continually migrating between objective and subjective conditions, passing from labor to refreshment and back again many times in its great task of self-fulfillment...until such time as its work is complete and it is ‘made a pillar in the House of God and no more goes out' as a journey-man builder into this sublunary workshop."